BYZANTINE

The Eastern Roman Empire from around 330 to 1453 C.E maintain Roman culture and traditions before and after the "end "of the city which sustain long history of distinctive churches and other decorative buildings. That become central image of Byzantium and their  Orthodox churches. Constantine moves capital to escape the aggression of Germanic nation and rename the  Greek city Byzantium -Constantinople after his name. (today Istanbul).Life in the Constantinople was same as in Rome and citizens called themselves Romans even though they spoke Greek. Emperor Justinian declares Christianity as the only legal religion in the 6th century; church become powerful. In 1054 east and west churches separated over doctrinal issues and fight between each other for centuries. Byzantine time was once full of prosperity and expansion ,but then fall and  rise in power again. Decline begins in 1203 when crusade start to sack Constantinople and Byzantine empire ends finally in 1453. Importnt fact is that Byzantine not only preserve Roma law and culture but ancient Greek culture by supporting intelectual life full of  classicism inspiration.The byzantine blend classical with Early Christian and Easter influences into distinctive churches architecture and decoration Symbolism are important in ornaments and in forms.The most known building from Byzantine time is of course Haga Sophia in  Constantinople (today Istanbul) (below).

Haga Sophia 

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Byzantine interiors are decorated in rich colours and materials, full of paintings ,mosaic marble panels what cover floors and walls and the ceiling. The expression is not classical becouse combine elements form Christian iconogray with the classical and with wealth of gold and richness of natural light. It create otherworldly feelings. Hagia Sophia ( picture above ) is the grandness masterpiece of complex architecture. 

A few pieces of furniture survive from Byzantine time. They are draped with fabric seating often has cushions.  Material used for furniture are mostly wood metal marble and ivory , jewelled and gold and silver inlay. 

Maximianus throne. 

Throne are often illustrated in manuscripts .The Maximianus throne made for Archbishop Maximianus of Ravenna is constructed of ivory carved with animals birds and foliage.

The panels shows saints  and scenes from life of Christ.

ROME

The simplicity of Greek architecture and design were lost in Rome. They took  design and architectural vocabulary what Greek have perfected, and added their own complexity of forms, curious about exotics, and constantly changing. They watched with curiosity foreign objects and materials and testes of emperors.The Greek materials were marble; Roman had also marble but the also had clay for producing tara cotta and brick. Most  fortunately, they had also volcanic sand pozzolana which when mixed with lime and water produced a remarkable building material -concrete. 

Romans also ad and change religion of Greek people for example Greek Zeus become Jupiter in Roman Empire, Greek philosophical idealism was change for realism which guvern the law and customs what make such a large and complex society workable. All Greek simplicity and modesty was change for complexity and pomp, but it is sure that Roman owned many aspects of their culture not only to Etruscans but also to Greeks.

Rome was great city before gave the name to the great Empire and according to legend was found by twins Romulus and Remus in 753 BC. The early Romans were contemporaries with Etruscans and geometric period in Greece untill overthrew their Etruscan rulers about c.500 BC. and about that time three great temples were build dedicated to Jupiter ,Juno and Minerva. In around 102 -44 the great Julius Caesar initiated ambitious building program and after his assassination his nephew Octavian, given title Augustin who become emperor made city flourish. As is known Octavian "found Rome a city of bricks and left it a city of marble".Around A.D 50 Rome entered its most successful and productive period - the High Empire. The city grew to over million residents and many public amenities ,including baths, sport arenas stadium bridges and aqueducts.There were an excellent water supplys and savage systems -city compare to other cities were a luxury until almost 18 century. The great construction of High Empire are :Colosseum, the Pantheon, the Forum of Trojan, The Baths of Caracalla.

Colosseum 

The Pantheon 

The Trojan column 

The Baths of Caracalla, 

the complex build in early third century covered 50 acres,providing gardens,libraries,auditoriums,dressing rooms and exercise grounds in addition to central building -the baths witch itself covered 5 acres.

 
There were great amount of building types, forms , expressions and individual tastes what contribute to great variety and richness. The architecture was also a great propaganda tool for the empire proclaim power  and glories and first time in history not only exteriors were  magnificent but also interiors.

The Roman building not only adopted principles of Greek construction using columns ,lintel and truss but in addition of use of concrete, they began to build structure with curved forms of the arch vault and dome. Arches could be constructed as a whole element in one piece. and that affected both interiors and exteriors and was used as decoration and extended to large areas as curved ceiling and arcades. That did not existed in other styles. Romans also added their variations to the orders: sample- tuscan and composite. 

composite capital

What is new also to Roman architecture is that they invented small roofed theater called odeum and enormous new building type the amphitheatre.Other types of buildings are circus for chariot races, the stadium for athletes events ,the imperial reception halls, great aqueducts for water supply, city gates and walls , warehouses and great memorial columns and triumphal arches.Regular population lived in town houses -single -family- houses called domus and emperors in villas.

Hadrian's Villa  

With the development of concrete Roman no longer needed rely on columns for structure,but began to apply them ornamentally and they had bigger taste for all sorts of ornaments including wall painting.Walls were treated with fine marble veneers,painted murals or carved stone. Often paintings were painted in technique called trompe I'oeil -french for "fool the eye" 

Wall painting from the house of Livia (above & below) 

Based on the discoveries at Pompeii and Herculaneum scholars have determined 4 style of paintings.That styles were used also around Naples and Rome. 

1.incrustation style employed a faux marble technique to imitate inlaid marble slabs. 

2. architectural style employed paintings to resemble a building or colonnade. 

3.ornate style still include architectural forms but in more ornamental way,

among figures and landscapes.

4. intricate style employed fantastic structures in grotesque and sometimes impossible arrangements.

 Bedroom from the house of Publius Fannius Synistor near Pompei. 

                      

3 rd style -villa Agrippa Postumus at Bascootrecase ( above and below ) 

4th style 

house of the Prince of Naples ,Pompeii

In general ,Roman ornaments, patterns and mouldings were more elaborate than Greek and were applied more lavishly. Greek were based on more complex geometrical figures such a parabola or ellipse so were more subtle and varied.  Romans were based on simple geometrical figure such circle so they were bolder and more obvious. It is obvious though that exteriors and interiors were of great concern to the Romans Furniture were also important to them By the time of emperor Cato 234-149 B.C couches were inlaid with decorations of ivory, bone, antler,silver and gold. Tables and chairs were inlaid with metals and precious stones. Beds were made of wood or metal and their legs often ended in animal feet. There were elegant polished bronze plates what serves as mirrors and bronze lamp lightened the rooms. Library cabinets were build for manuscripts.Furniture were more rich and widespread than ever in history.  

Houses in Ancient Rome made use of various types of chairs. Stools, folding stools and benches were commonly used, but later these began to evolve into proper chairs.

Stools

The early form of chair among the Roman and other ancient civilisations, the sedile, was the backless stool or bench with four perpendicular legs. The stool, or sella, was the regular seat for a person, used by men and women resting or working, and by children and slaves at their meals.

The bench, or subsellium, differed from the stool only in that it could seat more than one person. It was used by senators in the curia, by jurors in the courts, and by boys in school, as well as in private  houses. A special form of the sella was the famous curule chair (sella curulis), which had curved ivory legs. The curule chair folded up like a camp stool to make it portable and had straps across the top to support the cushion which formed the seat.

Roman Bench.

Solium

The solium - an upright, high-backed chair with solid arms was used by the master of the house when receiving business visitors in the atrium, was the first improvement upon the primitive sella. The solium looked like it had been cut from a single block of wood and was so high that a footstool was needed to reach it as with the lectus.

Roman Solium.

Cathedra

Later, the cathedra became popular. This was a more comfortable chair, without arms, and with a curved back, and it was often used by lecturers in the Schools of Rhetoric. This gave rise to the term 'ex-cathedra' for an authoritative statement - in other words, 'from the lecturer's chair.' The cathedra supina was a similar chair with the back set at an angle more suitable for relaxing comfortably.
Neither the solium nor the cathedra was upholstered, but cushions and coverings were used with them both as with the lectus, and they allowed similar opportunities for skillful workmanship and lavish decoration.

Roman Chests

Wooden chests bound with iron and ornamented with hinges and locks of bronze were used for storage of clothes and other things not constantly needed, as well as for the putting away of important documents, money, and jewelry.
Smaller wood chests or arcae were used as jewel cases and were often made of silver or even gold.
In addition to these types of chests there were also the considerably more important strong boxes or safes kept in the tablium where the master of the house stored money for daily and business needs. The strong box was made as strong as possible so that it could not easily be opened by force, and was so large and heavy that it could not be carried away. As an additional precaution it was sometimes chained to the floor. Often, as well, it was richly carved and mounted.

Cabinets

Wooden cabinets with doors, or armaria, began to be widely used in later ancient Roman history. These wood cabinets were often divided into compartments and were always supplied with hinges and locks. Cabinets were used in Roman libraries to protect books against mice and men, and in the alae they held the "imagines", or death masks of wax. These cabinets though lacked the convenient glass doors of the cabinets or cases that we use for books and similar things today, but they were suitably decorative.

Roman sella - folding chair. Examples were made in both wood and metal.

today version of stella originally designed by Danish architectOle Wanscher  in 1957. Carl Hansen & Son has now acquired rights to the design, and for the first time since 1970 it will be available in the US again. Pricing is likely to be in the $1,400 range.

Roman left behind a culture of a distinct personality.